22 oktober 2007 01:40

A Preliminary Study in Cultural Ecology Development: Cultural Conflict Value between Migrants and Local People in Managing Natural Resources in Mollucas Archipelago, Indonesia

By Hafid Setiadi & Widyawati H Soemadio

A. Introduction

Cultural dimension in developing countries is not taken for granted, including in Indonesia. Since a country with differs geographical condition, Indonesia has shown a discrepancy cultural in belief, law, tradition, and life orientation. Because of it, one of many important things to be counted in development planning process is cultural encountering among each other.

The cultural dimension is to be more crucial in line the more integrated national market of labor. Any one could go to any place and meet people with others cultural backgrounds. They interact each other through differ cultural values and symbols. Sometimes it could be harmonized, sometimes not. In recent years, there are many evidences in some provinces that show how the setting up of cultural differences has produced a high social tension. In Mollucas and West Kalimantan, for example, these social tensions have blown as social conflicts and brought about the regional collapse in almost all aspects of human life.

From regional planning point of view, there are many lessons for us to do something more e wisely. They urge us to internalize cultural counts into the whole of development process immediately. Without this effort, we’ll have a serious problem in achieving of effectiveness of development planning.

According to the previous issue, this study tries to promote cultural aspect, especially its variation and its discrepancy, as a main basis to decide the kind of developmental intervening. In term of developmental intervening, the focus of the study is cultural encountering in natural resources management between local and non-local tradition. Specifically, the objectives of this study are to analysis the role of local cultural value in resources management, to compare the cultural contrasting between local and migrant community, and to identify the potential of conflict among them. So, through this study, we will get a better understanding about the changing of local cultural fashion and its impact to local development performance.

B. The Area of Study

This study is taken place in Mollucas Archipelago, island that lies at east of Indonesia. Mollucas Archipelago has a strongly tradition in natural resources management under local customs. Since the century of 10th, Mollucas Archipelago has been experienced as a meeting area of many foreign cultures ranging from India, Persia, Melayu, to Europe cultures.

C. History of Mollucas Archipelago

Mollucas archipelago is a part of Indonesia that lies at the east of the country. It consist of 1.0?7 big and small islands. These islands spread on an 850.000 km² vast of seas. Big island at the archipelago is Seram Island, Halmahera Island, and Buru Island. Th e main city, and the biggest, are Ambon city, which lies at Ambon Island.

The main activities at these islands are plantation, hunting and fisheries. Among 2.33 million of Mollucas inhabitants, 64% of them are working at these three sectors (on 1999). The dense islands are Ambon and Seram. Almost 15% of Mollucas citizen lives at Ambon Island.

Even Ambon is the biggest city, Ternate city is the oldest one. Ambon developed by the Potuguese at the 16 century for the military purpose. Mean while Ternate developed 2 centuries before, and famous as a trading center for spices, specially cloves and nutmegs. Since then Mollucas archipelago was very attractive for migrants from other islands in Indonesia, especially from the surrounding area, such as Sulawesi.

Along side with workers migrants, investors also come to Mollucas. Most of them invest their money to exploit the natural resources sectors, such as forestry, plantation, mining, and fisheries. On 1999 the Statistics Bureau recorded 17 companies from other islands that invest at forestry sectors and 40 other companies invest at mining sectors. This does not mention companies that operate their fisheries fleet. This phenomenon proved that the natural resources at Mollucas Islands are very rich.

D. Mollucas Archipelago Culture

The Mollucas culture is an acculturation assimilation of cultures from Malay, Melanesia, Polinesia, and also the local culture from Ternate and Tidore monarchy (Papilaya, 2001:39). The acculturation of these cultures refine a new culture that grow especially at the middle of Mollucas, which is Seram culture, especially at Ambon Island (Ajawaila, 1999:16).
Based on the history of migrant development at Mollucas, the culture could be divided into three groups:

Feudalism based on the monarchy. This culture spread at the North of Mollucas, consists of Ternate, Tidore, Makyan, Bacan, and Jailolo Islands. This region is the hinterland of the 4 monarchies, Ternate, Tidore, Bacan and Jailolo. At these area, Sultans (King-head of the monarchy) are the main source to legitimate politics and cultures that grow in the society;
Egaliter society, based on the local culture board, consists of society figure and informal leader. All the decision accomplished by the board. This culture group spread at the middle of Mollucas, consist of Ambon, Seram, Buru, Banda, Saparua, Nusa Laut, and Haruku Islands.
Social hierarchical system. The dominant factor in the social hierarchical system is the heterogeneous of power sources (Topatimasang at Dietz, 1998:129). This culture develop at the small islands and relatively scatter which are Kei, Tanimbar, Damar, Leti and Wetar Islands.

E. The European influence

The European people came at the 16 century. They influence mainly to the religious aspects. Since the Portuguese came to trade spices on 1512, the Christian (Catholic) way of life influenced the local culture that has been developing before. The influenced clearly persuade the people at the southern area, which are relatively, has a negative perception to the Ternate monarchy. The increasing number of the Catholics at the southern area sprouts the conflicting between the Monarchy and the southern citizens. Ternate and Tidore as the central of the monarchies was influence by the Islamic way of life. This conflicting is the root conflicting between northern citizen of Mollucas which are Moslem with the southern of Mollucas which are Catholic.

The Dutch came along to Mollucas 1596. Based on their knowledge that Ternate monarchy had a very strong influence at the north region, the Dutch landed at the south region of Mollucas. Consequently there are two strong religion power at the south region, Catholic and Protestant power.

Competition of religion power develops to be rivalry of politics power. This situation developed in dominating the region (contest of space).

In the middle of the 17-century, the Dutch succeed the competition and become the authority of Mollucas. This victory is a milestone for the Dutch and since then they occupied Ternate as wall Tidore monarchies.

Since the Dutch ruled Mollucas, it changes several habits. All the settlements that lie at mountainous moved to the beach. This way made the Dutch easier to controlled its colonial area. The land that first belong to the society, taken by force by the Dutch. The Dutch also moved the entire cloves and nutmegs plantation to Leitimor Island where the citizens are Protestant. Since then there are no more cloves and nutmegs at Ternate and Tidore Islands.

Tomagola (2001:18) mention that at the Central and Southern of Mollucas, the Dutch gave the children opportunity to study at school. This opportunity was not given to the north part of Mollucas. This method was some way to alienate the Northern Mollucas citizen from the Southern. It is not amazing when Indonesia declared its independence, 37% of Ambon citizen had a formal education. This number are 0.2% higher than the number at Java Island (Alhadar, 2001:16). Formal education led the citizen to improve their work opportunity. To whom that accomplished formal education had the opportunity to work at the administration beaureau. To they who get the lowest education could serve as the Dutch soldier. In the local context, this phenomenon obviously alienate the Moslem citizen and extensive the social segregation in Mollucas, especially between Northern Mollucas (Moslem) and Central and Southern Mollucas (Christian).

Other local tradition that had been terminated is uli. Uli tradition is united people from several villages to rebel to the government, in this case was the Dutch. By terminating the uli tradition, groups that was bounded by the territorial, which was called by aman or hena, was terminated either. Instead, the Dutch built another new territorial that called by negeri. Negeri built based on the colonial necessity. This kind of new territorial, divided the community into 2 big groups, the Christian community at South Mollucas or Negeri Sarane, and the Moslem community at North Mollucas or Negeri Salam.

By understanding the community reconstruction, we aware that there are fundamentalism changes in the traditional lives at Mollucas archipelago. Four main fundamentalism changes are;

Social and cultural segregation transpired as well regional segregation among citizen;
Labor division among citizen groups;
Local tradition terminate for the colonial advantage;
The emergence of alternative tradition.

By a long social anthropology process the 4 main fundamentalism changes were giving a dominant influences to the new Mollucas culture and tradition. The first 3 changes show the conflicts potential at Mollucas, while the last one is how the people adjust the situation; therefore they could muffle any potential conflicts. The diagram attach shows the European influences to the local society at Mollucas archipelago.

F. Physical Environment and The Local Citizen

Mollucas archipelago physiography could be divided in 2 main region which are ‘the inner circle region’ and ‘the outer circle region’ (Sandy, 1987:309). The inner circle region start from Wetar Island, Roma Island, Damar Archipelago, and Banda Archipelago. The inner circle region proceed to North Mollucas to Ternate Island, Tidore Island, and Halmahera Island. The inner circle region is a vulcanic region. The outer circle region consists of bigger islands that appear like an arch. This region consist of Leti Archipelago, Barbar Archipelago, Tanimbar Archipelago, Lei Archipelago, Aru Archipelago, Watubela Archipelago, Gorong Archipelago, Seram Island, Buru Island, Sula Archipelago, Obi Island, Bacan Island, Halmahera Selatan Island, Morotai Island. The outer circle region is an unvulcanic region.

Based on Antonio Galvano reports (1538-1539, Portuguese ship captain at Ternate) which were rewrite by Hubert Th. M. Jacobs, Lapian (2001:41-43) illustrate a very interesting description relating to the physical environment at Mollucas. He mentioned that visitors who just arrived to Mollucas always get a depressed impression about Mollucas. This condition emerged because mountain peaks at Mollucas always cover by thick and dark clouds. Rain always pours very hard and long. The rain sometimes destroyed the farmers ranch and killed cattle. The climate is unpredictable.

The Mollucas seas are very dangerous. The seas are very deep and impede by coral reef. Soil at Mollucas is very hard composing by coral reef and clay. There are no big river, only small creeks cross the islands. Water easily absorbs by the ground.

Besides influencing the people character, the physical environment also impacts the life pattern of the people. Accessibility is a very luxurious possession. The scarcity of the islands at Mollucas contribute the ‘isolated among islands’. This condition adds lack of social and cultural interaction. This situation isolates one group to another and in turn there are no bounding among the people in Mollucas. The bounding only feel within the group which is homogeneous. Heterogeneous is something-unfamiliar (Lekollo, 1999:89)
Regional setting the physical environment at Mollucas are two main things that constraint the people, especially to them who work depend on the nature, such as fisherman and traditional farmers.

G. Local Migrants in Mollucas Archipelago

Local migrants in Mollucas come from all over Indonesia. Migrants to Mollucas prospering specially after the independence of Indonesia declare. Most of them come to Negeri Sarane, where they could borrow the land that the Negeri Sarane have. At Negeri Sarane, the land is boundless relative to the land at Negeri Salam. Even local migrants reside at the Negeri Sarane, but they built their trading relation closely with the people from Negeri Salam.

The prosperity that local migrants achieve also spread to Negeri Salam. This accomplishing increase the local migrants as well the Negeri Salam in bargaining position through the formal and the informal institution. Either the local migrants or people of Negeri Salam could exist at the beaureaucratics. Some of them have good position which mostly taken by people from Negeri Sarane. The job opportunity which open for every one make the traditional equilibrium in the society disorder. Along with the competition condition, local migrants also influence the social intercourse (Suparlan, 1999:41).

Since the local migrants influence the social cultural circumstance at Mollucas, new characters appear which are:

Shortage of Christian culture and philosophy in the middle of Mollucas;
Interaction among groups based on the economics significantly;
People from Negeri Sarane did not work as farmers anymore, while people from Negeri Salam and local migrants occupy the formal job opportunity as well the labor vocation.

H. Local Culture Concepts in Managing the Natural Resources

Mollucas people famous with their pela gandong concept. Pela mean, “everything is clear” (Zalampessy and Hussain, 2001:14). This expressed how human being as God creature has sincere to forgive one to each other. Gandong mean “mother uterus” where every human being grown for the first time. This expressed the strength of friendship, kinship, and relation where human being came from. Therefore pela gandong has the meaning, as sincerity, submission, loves which are the fundament of kinship and friendship as human being.
Parsudi Suparlan and J.E. Lokollo (in Alqadrie, 1999;43) mention that traditionally every village has a pela relation with other village. People among these villages are helping one another whenever a member needs help. Aids are given when a village attacks by other villagers. They also help each other in financial aid. The more a village has pela, the secure this village could be.
Through pela gandong tradition, villagers take the oath to be loyal and sincere, always helping and protecting between one village to another (Tomagola, 2001:20). The main ideas of oath are (Bartles, 1977):

Attitude to help and understanding in any situation, specially at crisis condition;
Cooperative for the broad society purpose;
Providing necessity for visitors that need help.

Based on the 3 ideas above, Mollucas people established local tradition that appropriate with they’re culture.
In managing the natural resources, it starts when people cut through the jungle for their settlement and farm. Succeeding the settlement preparation, dwellers prepare the land for shifting cultivation, hunting and harvesting activities by cutting through another area of the jungle. The area is not very big, as long as the border could be reach by foot. This area belongs to a group of people, called as marga. Between the marga land, there are still land that is unoccupied. They use this land jointly and mentioned as the larger communal belonging. Usually this area is primary and secondary forestry, hunting area, fish catching area, or the harvesting area. This communal belonging concept of land known as pertuanan negeri. When the concept related to the sea, the border of the area is the furthest sight from the beach settlement.

Beside the pertuanan negeri, Mollucas people has another concept that related to natural sources management, called sasi. Sasi tradition is a regulation to prohibited people taking any kind of natural resources for a certain time at a certain place. The purpose of this tradition is to conserve the nature. In other word, this tradition allows the nature to be mature before people harvest its yield (Pattiselano, 1999:65).

According to J.E. Local (in Monk, et al, 2000:539), there are 3 main ideas in implementing sasi tradition for conserving the nature, which are:

Fairness in distributing the natural resources, either in land or in sea, between the local people and the migrants;
Managing natural resources for the wealth of the people;
Reforestry for area which had been ruined.

According to the concepts above, it is clear that Mollucas people have 2 main principles in using natural resources, which are jointly utilization and harmony utilization. Therefore, beside as a tradition that inherit from ancestors, sasi also an important form of natural resources management that always up-to-date.

Even though migrants always welcome at Mollucas, they should respect to the local tradition. Table below shows examples of migrants responsibilities and right regard to the local traditional culture;

Responsibilities	Asking permission to the local people; Obey the traditional law; Acknowledge the local prosperity
Rights	Get land loan from pertuanan for a certain period; Build dwellers at the pointed site; Build farm with short term plant; Continuing their heritage tradition just for their own community.
Infraction	Traditional punishment

Source: Processed from Monk et al, 2000.

Migrants behavior who come to Mollucas has different character compare to the local people. Table below shows the differentiation of these characters:

X	Local Community	Migrants
Value	1. Cultural value : communal	1. Cultural value : individualism and enterpreunership
Tradition	2. Narrow minded 3. Homeland oriented 4. Fatherhood relationship 5. Kinship oriented 6. Historical orientation	2. Widen minded 3. Not having orientaion to a specific place 4. Patront client relationship 5. Group feelings 6. Future orientation
Behaviour	7. Un-opportunities 8. Transition society from traditional to modern 9. Migration is not part of the culture 10. Does not exploit economic networking	7. Opportunities 8. Modern society 9. Migration is part of the culture 10. Does not exploit economic networking

Source: processed from Acciaiolli (1998), Ajawaila (2000), Alqadrie (1999), Robinson (2000), Lokollo (1999), Suparlan (1999), and Topatimasang in Dietz (1998).

In managing natural resources, the local people in Mollucas and the migrants have different method. Theses differences were roots of the general conflicts which appear in Mollucas. Table below show how the differences cultural attributes between the local people and the migrants in managing natural resources.

Comparison between Local and Migrants Culture in
Managing Natural Resources

No	Aspects of Natural Resources Management	Cultural Attributes	Cultural Attributes
		Local Culture	Migrants Culture
1	Cultural value	Communal	Individualism & Entrepreneurship
2	Philosophy	Respect to human-nature balancing	Disobey human-nature balancing
3	Setting of thought	Traditional – narrow minded	Modern – widen minded
4	Main principles	Social & nature environment	Human needs
5	Time orientation	Keeping the role of incestor	Glory in future
6	Action to environment	Conservation : protective & selective	Exploitative
7	Objective	Subsistence orientation	Profit orientation
8	Attribute of management	Without competition Un-opportunities Monotonously	Full competition Opportunities Flexible

By comparing cultural attributes, it seems that local people and migrants have different goal in managing and exploiting natural resources. For the best to both groups, there must be something that can be done as a break through. It is wise if the government through formal and informal leader from both groups sit together and elaborate a new tradition in managing the natural resources. The new tradition could enrich the culture in Mollucas.

Closing

Local people in Mollucas Archipelago have their own wisdom in managing natural resources. This wisdom has live for centuries and for that long could protect either the natural resources or the people it self from being destructive. Deplorable, by using this wisdom, the economic and social culture of the local people tend to fall behind. There must be something that has to do, so that the local people could compete with the rest of the area.
Migrants tradition full of competition and profit oriented. They always try to get as much profit as possible. Eventhough, they still have to respect and pay attention to the local tradition. Migrants culture and the local people culture does not alike, and these are the conflicts roots.
To fulfill the local and migrants need, there must be a new tradition in between to adjust. The adjustment could be initiate by the government as a neutral group. By involving formal and informal leader from both groups, the team elaborate a new tradition in managing the natural resources. Government as the neutral group is responsible to raise this issue to the national level.

References

Acciaioli, G.L. (1998), “Bugis Entrepreneurialism and Resources Use: Structure and Practice’. Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia no. 57 Tahun XXII page 81-91. Jurusan Antroplogi FISIP UI. Depok.

Ajawaila, J.W. (2000). “Orang Ambon dan Perubahan Kebudayaan”. Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No 61 Tahun XXIV page 6-25. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok.

Alhadar, S. (2001a). “Kekerasan di Maluku: Produk Sejarah Kolonial”. Ketika Semerbak Cengkih Tergusur Asap Mesiu page 11-17, Editor: Z. Salampessy and T. Husain. Sekretariat Tapak Ambon, Jakarta.

Alhadar, S. (2001b). “Anatomi Kerusuhan Sosial di Maluku Utara”. Ketika Semerbak Cengkih Tergusur Asap Mesiu page 69-74, Editor: Z. Salampessy and T. Husain. Sekretariat Tapak Ambon, Jakarta.

Alqadrie, S.I. (1999). “Konflik Etnis di Ambon dan Sambas: Suatu Tinjauan Sosiologis”. Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No: 58 Tahun XXIII page 36-57. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok.

Dietz, T. (1998). “Pengakuan Atas Hak Sumberdaya Alam: Kontur Geografi Lingkungan Politik” Pustaka Pelajar, Insist Press dan Remdec. Yogyakarta.

Lokollo, J.E. (1999). “ Kerusuhan di Maluku: Beberapa Masalah dan Kaitannya dengan Ketahanan Nasional” Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No. 58 Tahun XXIII page 88-95. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok.

Monk, H.A. (1999). “Kesukubangsaan dan Negara Kebangsaan di Indonesia: Prospek Budaya Politik Abad ke 21” Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No. 58 Tahun XXIII Januari-April 1999 page 5-12. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok.

Papilaya, M.Y. (2000). “Persepsi Lokal tentang Konflik dan Kekerasan di Ambon – Persepsi Protestan”. Timur dan barat Indonesia Perspektif Integrasi Baru page 38-57. Editor: I. Kleden dan J. Julaman. The Go East Institute. Jakarta.

Pattiselanno, J. Th. F (1999). “Tradisi Uli, Pela dan Gandong pada Masyarakat Seram, Ambon, dan Uliase”. Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No. 58 Tahun XXIII page 58-70. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok

Robinson, K. (2000). “Ketegangan Antar Etnis, Orang Bugis dan Masalah ‘Penjelasan’” Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia No. 63 Tahun XXIV page 45-53. Jurusan Antropologi FISIP UI. Depok.

Suparlan, P. (1999). “Kemajemukan, Hipotesis Budaya Dominan, dan Kesukubangsaan” Jurnal Antropologi Indonesia. FISIP UI. Depok.

Tomagola, T.A. (2001a). “Memetakan Sumbu Kerusuhan” Ketika Semerbak Cengkih Tergusur Asap Mesiu page 48-52. Editor: Z. Salampessy and T. Husain. Sekretariat Tapak Ambon, Jakarta.

Tomagola, T.A. (2001b). “Akar Kekerasan Komunal” Ketika Semerbak Cengkih Tergusur Asap Mesiu page 48-52. Editor: Z. Salampessy and T. Husain. Sekretariat Tapak Ambon, Jakarta.

Topatimasang, R. (1998). “Pemetaan Sebagai Alat Pengorganisasian Masyarakat: Sejarah dan Politik Sengketa Sumberdaya Alam dan Hak-hak Kawasan Adat di Maluku” in Pengakuan Hak Atas Sumberdaya Alam. Writer: Dietz, T.). Pustaka Pelajar, Insist Press, Remdec. Yogyakarta.

__________

Hafid Setiadi & Widyawati H Soemadio, Regional Development Laboratory Department of Geography, University of Indonesia, Jarkarta, Indonesia

Source: www.ias.unu.edu
Credit Photo: www.answers.com

Read : 939 time(s).